Without limiting the scope of the invention, its background is described in connection with artificial double-stranded small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) as well as introduction thereof into animal and plant cells, which the inventor recognize to induce degradation of targeted mRNA molecules with homologous sequences. The use of siRNAs in such manner is a type of process that is generally known as RNA interference (RNAi). RNAi has emerged as a useful experimental tool with strong potential for therapeutic applications. However, in mammalian cells, induction of RNAi requires the transfection of RNA oligonucleotides, which can be inefficient and often gives rise to only a transient inhibition of target gene expression.
The discovery of RNA interference (RNAi) engendered great excitement and raised expectations regarding its potential applications in biomedical research and clinical application. Over the ensuing years, expanded understanding of RNAi and preliminary results from early clinical trials tempered enthusiasm with realistic appraisal resulting in cautious optimism and a better understanding of necessary research and clinical directions.
One type of RNAi involves the use of short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs). shRNAs consist of a stem-loop structure that can be transcribed in cells from an RNA polymerase II or RNA polymerase III promoter on a plasmid construct. It has been shown that expression of shRNA from a plasmid can be stably integrated for constitutive expression, which may provide certain advantages over synthetic siRNA. shRNAs, as opposed to siRNAs, are synthesized in the nucleus of cells, further processed and transported to the cytoplasm, and then incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) for activity.
The Argonaute family of proteins is the major component of RISC. Within the Argonaute family of proteins, only Ago2 contains endonuclease activity that is capable of cleaving and releasing the passenger strand from the stem portion of the shRNA molecule. The remaining three members of Argonaute family, Ago1, Ago3 and Ago4, which do not have identifiable endonuclease activity, are also assembled into RISC facilitated by a non-endonuclease mediated unwinding of the passenger strand from the stem portion of the si/shRNA molecule. Consequently, guide strand loading onto RISC is by way of either cleavage-dependent or cleavage-independent “loading pathways”.
Ago2 containing RISC initiates target mRNA degradation through a cleavage-dependent effector pathway whereas other three Agos containing RISCs partially-complementary to mRNA inhibit target mRNA function through a cleavage-independent effector pathway. Thus, RISC can be characterized as having cleavage-dependent and cleavage-independent “effector pathways”.
The recently discovered micro-RNA (miRNA) is a new class of endogenous RNA interference molecule that is synthesized in the nucleus, one component of which is a pre-miRNA, a structure emulated by shRNA. This new class of short, single-stranded miRNAs are found both in plant and animal cells and are derived from larger precursors that form a predicted RNA stem-loop structure. These miRNA precursor molecules are transcribed from autonomous promoters—or are instead contained within longer RNAs. More than 1700 distinct human miRNAs have been discovered to date, some of which are expressed in organisms as diverse as nematodes. miRNAs appear to play a role in the regulation of gene expression, primarily at the post-transcriptional level via translation repression. Several miRNAs have been shown to be evolutionarily conserved from C. elegans to man.
Like mRNAs, miRNAs are initially transcribed by RNA polymerase II into a long primary transcript (pri-miRNA) that contains one or more hairpin-like stem-loop shRNA structures. The stem-loop shRNA structures within the pri-miRNA are further processed in the nucleus by the RNase III enzyme Drosha and its cofactor DGCR-8 into pre-miRNA. Pre-miRNA is transported to the cytoplasm by the transport receptor complex Exportin-5-RanGTP, where it interacts with a second RNase III enzyme Dicer and its cofactor TRBP. Dicer trims off the loop and presents the remaining double stranded stem to the RISC for loading; subsequently, the passenger strand of the double stranded stem on the RISC departs for the guide strand containing RISC to seek-out target mRNA for down regulation.
While siRNAs, shRNAs, and miRNAs have been used to suppress the expression of certain target genes with moderate success, a need exists for improved versions of RNAi molecules. Preferably, such RNAi molecules will exhibit an improved ability to suppress the expression level of target genes (i.e., improved efficacy) and, furthermore, will be capable of suppressing gene expression over a longer period of time.